Domestic Violence Essay free essay sample

Domestic violence has become an important issue investigated by sociologists in recent years. The heart of the debate concerns identifying risk factors, causes and correlates of this behavior. There are a variety of different focal points when studying this behavior. Domestic violence still remains a big problem in society as it has significant social costs. Feminist sociologists contend that the issues of gender and power are the ultimate root of intimate violence (Dobash amp; Dobash 1979). Other approaches that focus on the sociology of family suggest that patriarchy is just a small contributing factor out of a mix of many variables. Other perspectives have found using national survey methods have suggested a strong relationship between violence and ages, unemployment and socioeconomic status, which would argue that social structure plays a big part in the likelihood of violent behavior in the home. This essay will examine the extent in which femininity contributes to ways in which women experience domestic violence. We will write a custom essay sample on Domestic Violence Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Before discussing domestic violence in further detail, it is important to define the behavior. In 2012 the deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg announced a new definition of domestic violence, one that extends to those aged 16-17 ‘Any incident or pattern of incidents of controlling, coercive or threatening behaviour,  violence or abuse between those aged 16 or over who are or have been intimate partners or family members regardless of gender or sexuality. This can encompass but is not limited to the following types of abuse: Psychological, physical,  sexual, financial and emotional’. In 2009 /10 there were a total of 290 domestic violence cases in England and Wales, with 63% being female victims. A series of crime surveys suggest that over a 15-year period between 1995- 2010, the estimated numbers of incidents against both male and female victims decreased significantly (by about 70% overall). In 2009/10, the proportion of male victims also slightly increased based on the estimated numbers of incidents. (Dewar Research 2012) From these figures it shows that despite quite a significant decrease in the umber of domestic violence cases in England and Wales the majority of victims are still females. When discussing the cause of these changes, sociologists who favour a feminist perspective would suggest that the increase in male victims shows the narrowing of the power gap of the patriarchy between men and women. From the women’s movement in the 1970s domestic violence being recognized as a public, not a private issue. Hague amp; Wilson (2000) discuss the perio d prior to 1970 where the structures of society made it hard for women to escape domestic violence. An example this is the difficulty of getting a divorce, which was very uncommon, it was only from the 70s when divorce became more common. Another example is the discrimination of women in employment as they had fewer employment opportunities and were largely forced into the labour sector. Looking at economic models they suggest that the decrease in domestic abuse towards women in the home is likely to be due to the fact women have more alternatives outside of their relationships. As attitudes have changed there are now hotlines, shelters and other physical and social support for women who suffer from abusive partners. Looking at social and economic explanations combined can also highlight how an increase in economic equality for men and women is influential. An example of this is the increase in education attainment, which has enabled women to be more self sufficient, giving them the power to leave an abusive relationship. There is a long standing argument over the gender symmetry of domestic violence this debate has shown sociologists the importance of identifying different types of violence. Based on patterns of behavior instead of specific incidents, Johnson 1995 coined four types of violence in the home. The first, Common couple violence is where violence arises over a specific row where one or both partners lash out at the other, in a series of empirical papers Johnson suggests that CCV is not as likely to escalate over time compared with other forms of domestic violence. Intimate terrorism is another type and is where violence is consistently used in a pattern of control and has shown to be more likely to escalate over time. This type is also more likely to consist of emotional abuse. Violence resistance, sometimes simply referred to as self defence. Johnson (2000) found that violent resistance was almost entirely perpetrated by women. This type of violence has the least research on it’s nature. When studying domestic violence it is easy to just overlook the type of violent behavior that women experience as domestic violence is a general term covering a variety of different actions. Looking at the different categories of violence in the home it’s clear that there are types that are much more frequent towards women in comparison to men. This is why identifying the type of violence is important when trying to identify causes of the behavior because it can be specifically broken down to be examined. There is a lot of literature that claims to show the symmetry of partner violence if not more common from women, which leads readers of such literature to believe men and women are equally abusive. However Johnson (2000) suggests that when looking at such studies, a vast majority focus on a heterosexual sample. Within this sample aggregated violence appears to be gender symmetric because it merges intimate terrorism, mainly perpetrated by men, CCV, which is also more common among men and VR, which is much more common from women. This is why categorizing violence is important when examining it as a behavior as the types of violence can distort findings as men and women experience different types of violence. As studies show the most common type of violence experienced by women is intimate terrorism. Looking specifically at this type of violence within a relationship a study by Jan Stets and her colleagues that focuses on relationship control shows how patriarchy is still common and how it is enforced in the home. They developed two lines of analysis on the role of control in intimate relationships. One line of work focused on a compensatory model, this model assumed that individuals act to maintain a reasonable level of control in their lives, becoming more controlling of their partner when their level of control is threatened. (Stets, 1995) In a slightly different approach, paying more attention to individual differences, the concepts of control identity and mastery identity were explored in terms of their relationships to gender, gender identity, and controlling behavior in intimate relationships. Stets, 1995) They found that when an individual experiences diminished freedom in the work domain, they react by gaining control in another aspect of their life, in this example controlling their spouse at home, to reclaim the view of control in their life. Feminist views on the structure of femininity versus masculinity attribute the cause of domestic violence to the elements of structural inequality. This influences violent behavior in women and men differently. This approach suggests that domestic violence is due to gender in the form of a power struggle and represents males striving for dominance and control (Anderson K. L. 1997) which can be closely linked to the work of Stets. Possibly the most important key focal point when investigating domestic violence is the social construction of masculinity and male attitudes towards women in society. Segal (1990) argues that men and women construct gender through social practices, which are designed to differentiate men and women. This perspective on gender suggests that an individuals sociodemographic position influences how they gender, suggested by (Connell, 1987). Looking at the working class you could argue that masculinities may focus on toughness, dominance and aggression, where as the upper class tend to focus on authority, ambition and responsibility in the way they perceive masculinity. Because of the lack of authority and power working class males may have in their working life, it can be argued that they implement more dominant aggressive models of masculinity in their home lives. As first suggested by Gondolf (1985) which compliments Stet’s work . This further brings the effect of class into debate and shows how demographic factor can determine the way in which women experience violence. Although women are also likely to use violence as a way of trying to gain or improve control in a relationship, there is also evidence suggesting that they differ from men as violence is likely to be used in retaliation to maintain their personality liberties. It was found that women and men motives for violence differ. One hundred and fifty participants, half man and half female, from Los Angeles County were surveyed and it was found that Females reported using violence in response to previous threats or violence against them, citing revenge and retaliation as their primary motivation. (Kernsmith, P. 2005) This shows how femininity is significant in the way women are victimized but also how they engage in violent behavior in comparison to men. Such findings also have a positive application when devising treatment that must combine the correct balance between victimization support and women being held accountable for decisions to engage in violent behavior. Further support for this theory comes from Swan S. , Gambone L. amp; Fields A, et al. (2005) who found that almost all women who engaged in violent behavior to partners had previously experienced violence directed towards them. They were also more likely to if they had suffered from child abuse. There are often inconsistencies in the reporting of domestic violence cases as shown by Anderson (1997). This is because many participants reported events of domestic violence where their partner did not. From this it is challenging to suggest if the cases are being over reported or under reported. Although due to the sensitive nature of the topic of research it can be suggested that under reporting may be more likely due to social desirability bias. (Arias amp; Beach, 1987) However it remains important to consider the effect the sensitivity of the topic may have on the explanations formed towards domestic violence towards women. A theme that reoccurs over and over again in domestic violence research is the effect that the structure of society has on us, as our gender and gender behavior is socialized. In spite of significant social changes in recent decades, men continue to grow up with, and are socialized into, a deeply misogynistic males-dominated culture, where violence against women- from the subtle to the homicidal- is disturbingly common. Jackson Katz (2006) In a document published by the UN discussing the case of domestic violence and how it can be reduced, this extract summarises the structural problems in society that determine women’s experiences of violence i n the home. Violence against women is not the result of random, individual acts of misconduct, but rather is deeply rooted in structural relationships of inequality between women and men†¦ Violence constitutes a continuum across the lifespan of women, from before birth to age. It cuts across both the public and the private spheres’ (Ending violence against women: from words to action, UN secretary General’s Report 2006) This once again illustrates how changes in society need to occur in order to stop domestic violence against women. Femininity is the most crucial factor contributing to how women experience domestic violence. It is clear that as women go through life in contemporary society there are important variables that influence how, those that are unfortunate enough, experience domestic violence. Among the most important is how society influences the construction of masculinity and femininity; this inequality then has a knock on effect causing economic inequalities that have caused women to be denied the power to escape domestic violence over the last 50 years. Childhood experiences and previous experience of domestic violence also contribute to how women engage in domestic violence and can offer power for models to predict behavior. Despite the increased attention to the issue and the changes we have witnessed in society to try and bring equality between men and women, such as the economic discussed above, domestic violence is still a problem in contemporary society with large social costs and it remain important for research to continue focusing on the causes and differences in how men and women experience violence. We have seen a significant decline in domestic violence cases in recent years and it’s important that we continue to study this problem to further this trend. REFERENCES Arias, I amp; Beach, S. (1987) Validity of self reports of marital violence. Journal of Family Violence, 2. Anderson K. L. (1997) Gender, status and domestic violence: An integration of Feminist and Family Violence Approaches. Journal of Marriage and Family. Vol 59 (3) Connell, R. W. (1987). Gender and power: Society, the person and sexual politics. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press Dewar Researchwww. dewar4research. org/DOCS/DVGovtStats96-11RevFeb12 Dewar Research (2012) Government Statistics on Domestic Violence? Estimated prevalence of domestic violence England and Wales 1995-2010/11 Dobash R P amp; Dobash, R E. (1979) Violence against wives: A case against the patriarchy. New York: Free Press Gondolf, E. W. (1985). Men who batter: An integrated approach for stopping wide abuse. Holmes Beach, FL: Learning Publications Hague G. amp; Wilson C. (2000) The Silenced Pain: Domestic Violence, 1945-1970. Journal of Gender Studies, 9, 2 ttps://www. gov. uk/government/news/new-definition-of-domestic-violence Johnson, H. (1996). Dangerous domains: Violence against women in Canada. Toronto: Nelson Canada. Johnson, M. P. (1995). Patriarchal terrorism and com- mon couple violence: Two forms of violence against women. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 283–294. Johnson, M. P. (2000a). Conflict and control: Images of symmetry and asymmetry in domestic violence. In A. Booth, A. C. Crouter, amp; M. Clements (Eds. ), Couples in conflict. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Kernsmith P. 2005) Exerting power or striking back: A gendered comparison of motivations for domestic violence perpetration. Violence and Victims 20 (2) Stets, J. E. (1995a). Job autonomy and control over one’s spouse: A compensatory process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 244–258. Swan, S. C. , Gambone, L. J. , Field, A. M. , et al. (2005) Women who use violence in intimate relationships: The role of anger, victimization, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress and depression. Violence and victims, 20 (3) www. scotland. gov. uk The case for a gendered analysis of violence against women. Jack Katz